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GNDU Question Paper-2022

B.A 1

Semester

PSYCHOLOGY

(Basic Psychological Processes)

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 75

Note: Attempt any Five questions from Sections A-D. One question must be attempted

from each Section. The Fifth question may be attempted from any Section. All questions

carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Briefly discuss historical background of Psychology.

2. Explain:

(i) Observation Method, and

(ii) Introspection Method of Psychology.

SECTION-B

3. Define Motivation. Explain Biological Motives.

4. Define Emotions. Explain Cannon-Bard theory of emotions.

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SECTION-C

5. Define Learning. Discuss types of learning.

6. What is conditioning? Explain Pavlov's theory of conditioning.

SECTION-D

7. Write notes on Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics.

8. Calculate Mean of the following data:

C.I

85-89

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

N=25

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GNDU Answer Paper-2022

B.A 1

Semester

PSYCHOLOGY

(Basic Psychological Processes)

Time Allowed: Three Hours Maximum Marks: 75

Note: Attempt any Five questions from Sections A-D. One question must be attempted

from each Section. The Fifth question may be attempted from any Section. All questions

carry equal marks.

SECTION-A

1. Briefly discuss historical background of Psychology.

Ans: 1. Ancient Roots of Psychology

The earliest ideas related to psychology can be traced back to ancient civilizations, especially

in Greece, India, China, and Egypt. These ancient thinkers were interested in understanding

human nature, emotions, thoughts, and behavior. Though they did not use the term

“psychology” as we know it today, their discussions laid the foundation.

a. Ancient India and the Vedic Tradition

In India, ancient scriptures like the Vedas, Upanishads, and Bhagavad Gita touched upon the

nature of consciousness, mind (called manas), intellect (buddhi), ego (ahamkara), and soul

(atman). Indian philosophers like Patanjali (Yoga Sutras) developed psychological ideas

related to meditation, mental health, and self-awareness.

b. Ancient Greece

• Greek philosophers played a crucial role in shaping early psychological thought.

• Socrates (470–399 BC) encouraged self-knowledge and introspection: "Know

thyself."

• Plato (427–347 BC) believed in a tripartite soul—reason, spirit, and appetite. He

viewed the soul as immortal and believed in innate knowledge.

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Aristotle (384–322 BC), Plato’s student, wrote the book De Anima (On the Soul), which is

considered one of the earliest texts on psychology. He proposed that the soul is the essence

of life and described sensation, memory, and dreams in detail.

c. Chinese and Islamic Contributions

• In China, Confucius and Laozi emphasized moral development, harmony, and inner

peace—ideas connected to human behavior and psychology.

• Islamic scholars like Avicenna (Ibn Sina) and Al-Farabi wrote about perception,

emotions, and psychological disorders. Avicenna's The Book of Healing included

discussions on depression and anxiety.

2. Psychology in the Middle Ages

During the Middle Ages (5th to 15th century), much of Europe’s intellectual life was

dominated by the Church. Psychology was discussed mainly through a religious and spiritual

lens. The soul, sin, and morality were central topics. While scientific exploration was limited,

philosophers like St. Augustine and St. Thomas Aquinas blended theological thought with

some ideas about human mind and will.

3. The Renaissance and Rise of Humanism (14th to 17th Century)

The Renaissance was a time of rebirth in art, science, and human understanding. Human

beings were placed at the center of thought. The Humanism movement emphasized the

potential and dignity of human beings. People began questioning religious doctrines and

exploring human nature using reason.

During this period:

• René Descartes (1596–1650), a French philosopher, famously said, "I think, therefore

I am." He believed in dualism—that the mind and body are separate but interact.

This idea deeply influenced later psychology.

• Descartes viewed the mind as a non-material entity responsible for thinking and

consciousness, while the body was a machine governed by physical laws.

4. Birth of Modern Science (17th–18th Century)

This era saw the rise of scientific methods. Thinkers started relying on experimentation,

observation, and evidence, laying the groundwork for psychology to become a science.

• John Locke proposed that the human mind is a tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth, and

experiences shape knowledge.

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• David Hume and George Berkeley explored how people perceive the world,

contributing to empiricism—the idea that knowledge comes through sensory

experience.

5. Psychology as a Scientific Discipline (19th Century)

Now comes the major turning point—psychology becomes an independent science. This

shift began in the late 1800s.

a. Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920)

Known as the "Father of Modern Psychology," Wundt established the first psychology

laboratory in 1879 at the University of Leipzig, Germany. This event marks the official

beginning of psychology as a science.

• Wundt focused on introspection—the process of looking inward and examining

one’s thoughts and feelings.

• His goal was to understand the structure of the mind, which led to the school of

thought known as Structuralism.

b. William James (1842–1910)

In the United States, William James was a key figure. He wrote the famous book Principles

of Psychology and introduced Functionalism, which focused on the purpose of mental

processes—why we think, feel, or behave in certain ways.

c. Other Early Schools of Psychology

• Structuralism (Wundt, Titchener): Analyzing the structure of mental experiences.

• Functionalism (James): Understanding the function of mental processes.

• Psychoanalysis (Freud): Exploring the unconscious mind and its influence on

behavior.

• Behaviorism (Watson, Skinner): Studying observable behavior rather than the mind.

6. 20th Century: The Rise of Major Psychological Schools

The 20th century saw rapid growth in different branches of psychology, each offering

unique insights into human behavior:

a. Psychoanalysis (Sigmund Freud)

Freud believed that much of human behavior is driven by unconscious desires and childhood

experiences. He introduced terms like id, ego, superego, and developed techniques like

dream analysis and free association.

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b. Behaviorism (John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner)

• Behaviorists argued that psychology should focus only on observable behavior, not

the mind.

• Watson performed experiments like the Little Albert study.

• Skinner used reinforcement and punishment to shape behavior (Operant

Conditioning).

c. Humanistic Psychology (Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)

• Humanists emphasized free will, personal growth, and self-actualization.

• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs describes how people move from basic needs to

reaching their full potential.

• Rogers focused on empathy and unconditional positive regard in therapy.

d. Cognitive Psychology

In the 1950s–70s, the Cognitive Revolution brought attention back to the mind.

Psychologists like Jean Piaget (cognitive development in children) and Ulric Neisser studied

how people think, remember, solve problems, and learn.

e. Biological and Neuroscience Approaches

With advances in technology, scientists began studying the brain’s role in behavior.

Neuropsychology and cognitive neuroscience became key fields.

7. 21st Century Psychology

Modern psychology is a diverse field. It uses a multidisciplinary approach, blending:

• Biology (brain and hormones)

• Psychology (mind and behavior)

• Sociology (social influence)

• Technology (AI, virtual reality, brain imaging)

Psychology now includes various branches like:

• Clinical Psychology

• Counseling Psychology

• Educational Psychology

• Industrial-Organizational Psychology

• Health Psychology

• Sports Psychology

• Forensic Psychology

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Conclusion

Psychology has come a long way—from ancient philosophical debates about the soul to a

sophisticated, scientific discipline. It began with thinkers like Plato and Aristotle, found its

scientific roots with Wundt and James, and grew into multiple branches throughout the

20th and 21st centuries.

Today, psychology continues to evolve, helping us understand the complexities of human

thought, behavior, emotion, and experience. Whether it’s improving mental health,

enhancing learning, or understanding brain function, psychology is an essential part of our

modern world.

This journey shows us that understanding ourselves is a timeless human pursuit—and

psychology is the roadmap

2. Explain:

(i) Observation Method, and

(ii) Introspection Method of Psychology.

Ans: (i) Observation Method

Imagine you are sitting in a park. You watch a little child trying to reach a flower on a tree.

He stretches his arms, climbs on tiptoes, and finally grabs the flower. As you watch this

scene unfold, you begin to understand his intention, effort, and emotion—without saying a

single word to him. This process of learning by watching behavior is known as the

Observation Method in psychology.

Definition

• The observation method is a technique in which a psychologist watches and records

the behavior of individuals or groups in a natural or controlled environment, without

interfering or asking direct questions.

• Types of Observation Method

The observation method is mainly divided into two types:

Naturalistic Observation:

In this type, behavior is observed in its natural environment—like watching how children

play in a playground, or how people react during a festival. The observer does not interfere

or manipulate the situation.

Example: Observing students in a classroom without their knowledge to understand peer

interaction.

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Controlled (or Laboratory) Observation:

Here, the observation is done in a controlled setting—like a psychology lab. The situation is

often artificially created to study specific behavior.

Example: Observing how people respond to loud noises in a lab to study stress reactions.

Techniques of Observation

• Participant Observation: The observer becomes a part of the group being studied.

For example, a psychologist might join a group of workers to understand their group

dynamics.

• Non-participant Observation: The observer remains separate and does not engage

with the group. This is more objective and less intrusive.

Advantages of Observation Method

• Direct Access to Behavior: Unlike interviews or surveys, observation lets us see real

behavior as it happens.

• Useful for Studying Children and Animals: Since they cannot always explain their

feelings, observation helps us understand them better.

• Rich Data: Observers can note facial expressions, gestures, tone, and environment

which give deeper insights.

Limitations of Observation Method

• Observer Bias: The personal opinions or expectations of the observer might

influence what they see or record.

• Hawthorne Effect: People may change their behavior if they know they are being

observed.

• Limited to External Behavior: It does not provide access to thoughts, motivations, or

emotions unless the person expresses them outwardly.

Example Scenario

Let’s say a psychologist wants to study aggression in schoolchildren. They may spend several

weeks quietly sitting in the school’s playground or cafeteria, observing children’s

interactions—how often they fight, argue, or cooperate. This provides data about behavior

in a natural setting, which is hard to fake or manipulate.

(ii) Introspection Method

Now, let’s change the scene. Imagine you just had a fight with a friend. You sit quietly

afterward and start thinking—“Why did I get so angry?”, “Was it my fault?”, “What was I

feeling when he said that?” This deep self-thinking or self-observation is called

Introspection.

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Definition

The introspection method in psychology refers to the process of looking inward, examining

one’s own thoughts, feelings, and mental states. It is like putting a mirror to the mind.

The word introspection comes from Latin: intro = inward, spectare = to look. So it literally

means "to look within."

Historical Background

Introspection was one of the first methods used in psychology, especially by early

psychologists like Wilhelm Wundt, the father of modern psychology. He used introspection

in his laboratory to understand mental processes like sensation, perception, and emotion.

Process of Introspection

• A person is asked to focus on a specific experience or thought.

• The individual then observes and reports on their mental experiences—how it felt,

what they thought, what memories came up.

• These inner experiences are then analyzed to understand mental functioning.

Example of Introspection

Imagine being shown a red rose and asked to describe what goes through your mind. You

might say:

• “I feel happy.”

• “It reminds me of my mother’s garden.”

• “The color feels warm and loving.”

This method reveals subjective experiences that cannot be directly observed by anyone else.

Advantages of Introspection Method

• Access to Inner Thoughts: Only the person themselves knows what they are truly

thinking or feeling.

• Helps in Self-understanding: Regular introspection can improve emotional

intelligence and self-control.

• Foundational to Psychology: Helped establish psychology as a science of the mind.

Limitations of Introspection Method

• Subjective and Unreliable: Different people may describe the same feeling in

different ways.

• Cannot be Verified: No one else can check whether your introspective report is

accurate.

• Not Suitable for All: Small children, mentally disturbed patients, or animals cannot

introspect.

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Example Scenario

Suppose a person listens to a sad song. The psychologist asks the person to close their eyes

and describe what they feel. The person says:

• “It reminded me of a loss.”

• “I feel a heaviness in my chest.”

• “My mood has dropped suddenly.”

This provides deep insights into how emotional memories affect behavior and perception.

Comparison of Observation and Introspection Methods

Feature

Observation Method

Introspection Method

Focus

External behavior

Internal thoughts and feelings

Data Type

Objective (actions)

Subjective (experiences)

Who Uses

Observer or psychologist

The individual themselves

Application

Useful for all (including children and

animals)

Only suitable for self-aware individuals

Example

Watching a child solve a puzzle

Asking the child how they felt while solving

the puzzle

Conclusion

Both the Observation Method and the Introspection Method are like two powerful tools in

the psychologist’s toolkit. Observation allows us to see what people do, while introspection

helps us understand why they do it. Neither method is perfect on its own, but when

combined with other psychological tools like experiments, case studies, or surveys, they

help build a rich and deep understanding of human behavior and the mind.

As university students, it's important to not just memorize these methods but to also

practice them in daily life. Next time you see someone acting strangely, try observing them

carefully. And next time you feel sad, try sitting down for a few minutes and introspecting.

Psychology is all around us—it starts with looking out, and looking within.

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SECTION-B

3. Define Motivation. Explain Biological Motives.

Ans: What is Motivation? (Definition and Meaning)

Motivation can be defined as a process that initiates, directs, and sustains goal-directed

behavior. In simpler terms, it is the inner drive that pushes you to take action towards

achieving something—whether it’s satisfying a basic need like hunger or a complex goal like

becoming a doctor.

Formal Definition:

“Motivation is a psychological process that arouses, directs, and maintains behavior toward

a goal.”

Key Components of Motivation:

To understand motivation better, let’s break it into three essential components:

• Activation: The decision to start a behavior. For example, choosing to get up and go

for a run.

• Direction: The path the behavior takes. Do you go jogging, or do you go back to

sleep?

• Persistence: The effort and consistency to continue the behavior. Do you run daily,

or give up after two days?

All these together shape our actions, and different types of motivation can be involved

depending on the nature of the behavior.

Types of Motivation:

Motivation is broadly classified into two categories:

• Intrinsic Motivation: Doing something because you enjoy it. For example, painting

because it makes you happy.

• Extrinsic Motivation: Doing something for a reward or to avoid punishment. For

example, studying hard to score well in exams.

However, when it comes to the basic needs for survival, there is another category—

Biological Motivation, which we’ll now explore in depth.

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Biological Motives: The Survival Drivers

Biological motives are the most fundamental and universal types of motivation. Every

human being, regardless of their background, experiences these drives. They are innate,

meaning we are born with them, and they are linked to the physiological needs of our body.

These motives ensure our survival and help maintain homeostasis, a state of internal

balance in the body.

What is Homeostasis?

Homeostasis is the body’s way of maintaining a stable internal environment. For example, if

your body temperature goes too high or too low, it tries to bring it back to normal.

Biological motives work in sync with homeostasis. When there is an imbalance (like hunger

or thirst), a biological need arises, and motivation kicks in to fix the problem.

Characteristics of Biological Motives:

• Innate (present from birth)

• Universal (common in all humans and many animals)

• Cyclical (repeated when the need arises)

• Powerful (cannot be ignored easily)

Major Types of Biological Motives:

Let’s take a look at the most common biological motives and understand how they work.

1. Hunger Motive:

• One of the strongest biological drives is hunger.

• The hypothalamus in the brain plays a central role in regulating hunger.

• When the glucose level in the blood drops or the stomach is empty, signals are sent

to the brain.

• These signals create a feeling of hunger, pushing you to eat.

• Once food is consumed and nutrients are absorbed, hunger decreases, and the drive

is satisfied.

• Example: Even if you're not thinking about food, if you skip lunch, by evening your

body reminds you through hunger pangs and grumbling stomach.

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2. Thirst Motive:

Water is vital for survival. The thirst motive is triggered when the body loses water through

sweat, urine, or breathing.

• Osmoreceptors in the brain detect the level of water in cells.

• A dry mouth and other body signals create the urge to drink.

• Drinking restores the fluid balance and satisfies the motive.

Example: After running in the sun, you feel very thirsty. That’s your body signaling

dehydration.

3. Sleep Motive:

• Sleep is essential for body repair and mental health.

• When the body and brain become tired, chemicals like melatonin are released to

make you feel sleepy.

• Lack of sleep can impair memory, coordination, and mood.

• The sleep-wake cycle is also regulated by the biological clock or circadian rhythm.

Example: If you stay up too late, your eyelids get heavy, and concentration drops. That’s

sleep motivation in action.

4. Sex Motive:

• This motive ensures the continuation of the species.

• It becomes active at puberty and is driven by hormones like testosterone and

estrogen.

• Though not essential for an individual’s survival, it plays a key role in reproduction.

• The hypothalamus, hormones, and cultural/social factors all influence sexual

behavior.

Example: Unlike hunger or thirst, the sex motive is not a constant physical need but appears

in cycles or under specific conditions.

5. Temperature Regulation:

• Humans try to maintain a body temperature around 37°C.

• If you are too cold, you feel motivated to wear warm clothes or sit near a fire.

• If you’re too hot, you seek shade or drink cold water.

• The hypothalamus again plays a role in managing this balance.

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6. Pain Avoidance:

• Pain is a signal of injury or danger.

• The moment you touch something hot, the nervous system sends a message to pull

your hand away.

• Pain motivates us to stop harmful behavior and seek help or rest.

• It’s a protective mechanism that supports survival.

7. Excretory Motive:

• The urge to eliminate waste (urine and feces) is another biological need.

• This need builds up gradually and cannot be ignored for long.

• It is regulated by internal systems and external social norms.

Conclusion: Biological Motives – Nature’s Silent Alarms

Biological motives are nature’s built-in alarm systems. They alert us when something in our

body needs attention. Whether it’s hunger, thirst, sleep, or safety, these motives ensure our

survival by constantly guiding our behavior in specific ways.

As university students, understanding biological motives is important because it helps us

grasp the foundations of human behavior. Whether in psychology, education, medicine, or

everyday life, motivation is the key to understanding ourselves and others.

When we learn how our body signals needs and how we respond to them, we also become

better at managing ourselves—from healthy eating to good sleep habits and even handling

stress.

So the next time you feel hungry, sleepy, or uncomfortable, remember: it’s not just a

feeling. It’s your biology speaking to you—and motivation doing its job!

4. Define Emotions. Explain Cannon-Bard theory of emotions.

Ans: I. Definition of Emotions

Let’s begin by understanding what emotions are.

Emotion can be defined as a complex psychological and physiological state that involves

three distinct components:

• Subjective Experience – how we personally feel something (e.g., feeling happy, sad,

scared).

• Physiological Response – how our body reacts (e.g., increased heart rate, sweating,

blushing).

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• Behavioral or Expressive Response – how we express our feelings outwardly (e.g.,

smiling, crying, shouting).

In simpler words, emotions are feelings that come with physical changes and actions. They

arise in response to some stimulus—either internal (like a thought) or external (like an

event)—and influence how we react to the world around us.

For example, if you see a snake in your path, you may feel fear (subjective experience), your

heart might race (physiological response), and you might scream or run away (behavioral

response).

II. Understanding the Theories of Emotion

To explain how emotions work, psychologists have developed several theories. Each of

these theories tries to answer this central question:

Do we feel an emotion first and then our body reacts? Or does our body react first, and then

we feel the emotion? Or do both occur at the same time?

Among the key theories are:

• James-Lange Theory

• Cannon-Bard Theory

• Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• Cognitive Appraisal Theory

Let’s now focus on the Cannon-Bard Theory, which was developed as a reaction to the

James-Lange theory.

III. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotions

Background and Historical Context

The Cannon-Bard Theory was formulated by Walter Cannon, a physiologist, and later refined

by Philip Bard, his student. They developed this theory in the 1920s as a critique of the

James-Lange Theory of emotion.

The James-Lange Theory claimed that our emotions are the result of our body’s

physiological response. For example, we feel afraid because our body trembles. In contrast,

Cannon and Bard believed that this explanation was too simplistic and did not account for

the complexity of emotional responses.

Main Idea of the Cannon-Bard Theory

The Cannon-Bard Theory states that:

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When we encounter an emotion-provoking stimulus, the brain sends signals simultaneously

to the body and to the emotional centers, causing physiological reactions and emotional

experiences to occur at the same time and independently.

So, instead of your body reacting first and your mind catching up later (as James-Lange

suggested), Cannon and Bard believed that the brain processes emotion and the body reacts

at the same time.

Example to Illustrate

• Imagine you're walking in the woods and you see a bear.

• According to the Cannon-Bard Theory:

• Your brain immediately processes the threat.

It sends one signal to your autonomic nervous system (to make your heart race, body sweat,

muscles tense up).

At the same time, it sends a signal to your cerebral cortex (where you consciously feel fear).

So, you feel fear and your body reacts at the same time, not one after the other.

IV. Key Features of Cannon-Bard Theory

1. Simultaneity

Cannon and Bard emphasized that emotions and physiological responses occur

simultaneously. There is no cause-effect relationship between them.

2. Role of the Brain – Especially the Thalamus

A major highlight of this theory is the central role of the brain, particularly the thalamus.

Cannon and Bard proposed that:

• The thalamus acts as a relay station.

It receives sensory signals (like the sight of a bear) and sends information to both:

• The autonomic nervous system (for bodily response)

• The cerebral cortex (for emotional experience)

3. Independence of Emotions and Body Reactions

They also argued that emotions could happen even if the bodily feedback system is

impaired. For instance, even if someone had damage to their spinal cord and couldn’t feel

certain bodily changes, they could still feel emotions.

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V. Criticisms and Limitations of the Cannon-Bard Theory

While Cannon-Bard's theory brought a new understanding of emotions, it is not without

criticism.

1. Too Much Emphasis on the Thalamus

Modern neuroscience shows that other parts of the brain, like the amygdala, hypothalamus,

and prefrontal cortex, also play important roles in emotional processing—not just the

thalamus.

2. Lack of Attention to Cognitive Factors

Cannon-Bard’s theory did not consider the cognitive appraisal (thought process) that often

accompanies emotion. For example, people often think about a situation and then feel an

emotion.

This gap was later addressed by cognitive theories like the Schachter-Singer Two-Factor

Theory, which added the role of thought and interpretation in experiencing emotions.

VI. Comparison with James-Lange Theory

Feature

James-Lange Theory

Cannon-Bard Theory

Sequence

Body reacts first, then we feel

emotion

Body and emotion occur at the same

time

Focus

Physiological changes

Brain processing

Example

“I am afraid because I tremble”

“I tremble and feel afraid at the same

time”

VII. Contributions and Importance

Despite its limitations, the Cannon-Bard Theory:

• Challenged old views and opened doors for more research into the role of the brain

in emotion.

• Emphasized the central role of the nervous system, especially the brain structures.

• Helped highlight that emotional experience is not just about physical reactions, but

also brain activity.

It was one of the first theories to link neuroscience and emotion, paving the way for modern

understanding of affective neuroscience.

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VIII. Real-Life Application

Let’s think of a common example—a public speech.

Imagine you're standing on stage, and you see hundreds of eyes watching you. Your heart

starts beating fast, your palms sweat, and you feel nervous. According to Cannon-Bard:

The sight of the audience is a stimulus.

Your brain processes it, and sends signals to:

• Your body – to sweat and tense up.

• Your mind – to feel nervousness or fear.

• Both occur together, which influences how you react (e.g., stammering, avoiding eye

contact).

Conclusion

Emotions are central to human life—they guide our decisions, shape our relationships, and

influence our health. Understanding them helps psychologists, educators, doctors, and even

everyday individuals respond better to their feelings and those of others.

The Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion stands as a significant milestone in emotional research.

It emphasized that emotions and bodily reactions occur at the same time and that the

brain—especially the thalamus—plays a crucial role in this process. Though newer theories

have refined these ideas, Cannon-Bard's contributions remain foundational in the study of

emotions.

As we continue to explore the human mind, our understanding of emotion will deepen—

bringing us closer to understanding ourselves.

SECTION-C

5. Define Learning. Discuss types of learning.

Ans: What is Learning?

Definition of Learning:

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge that

occurs as a result of experience or practice. It is not simply gaining information but also the

ability to apply, understand, and modify that information in different situations.

According to B.F. Skinner, a famous psychologist,

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“Learning is a process of progressive behavior adaptation.”

According to Kimble (1961),

“Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavioral potentiality that occurs as a result

of reinforced practice.”

In short, learning is:

• Intentional or unintentional

• Formal or informal

• Individual or social

• Gradual or sudden

Essential Characteristics of Learning:

• Change in behavior: Learning results in a change — it may be positive (e.g., learning

to read) or negative (e.g., picking up bad habits).

• Relatively permanent: It’s not a temporary change due to tiredness or drugs but a

lasting one.

Experience-based: It happens through experience, practice, or observation, not just instinct.

• Goal-oriented: Most learning occurs with an objective in mind.

• Universal process: Every living being learns — humans, animals, even machines

(artificial intelligence).

Continuous: Learning doesn’t stop; it’s a lifelong process.

Types of Learning

Psychologists and educators have identified various types of learning based on how it takes

place. Here, we’ll discuss the most important and widely accepted types:

1. Classical Conditioning (Learning by Association)

This type of learning was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist.

Story Example:

Pavlov noticed that dogs would start salivating not only when food was placed in front of

them but even when they heard footsteps or saw the lab assistant. He experimented by

ringing a bell before presenting food. After a few repetitions, the dog started salivating just

at the sound of the bell — even when no food was present.

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• Key Concept:

A natural response (salivation) is triggered by a previously neutral stimulus (bell)

through association.

Use in Real Life:

• Children may fear school if they associate it with punishment.

• A song may remind you of a special person or event.

2. Operant Conditioning (Learning by Consequences)

• This type was developed by B.F. Skinner.

Story Example:

Skinner placed rats in a box with a lever. When they accidentally pressed the lever, they

received food. Soon, the rats learned to press the lever to get the food reward.

• Key Concept:

Behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement (reward) and weakened if

followed by punishment.

Use in Real Life:

• Praising a student for good marks encourages them to study more.

• Fines discourage breaking traffic rules.

3. Observational Learning (Learning by Watching Others)

This is also known as modeling or imitation, and was studied in detail by Albert Bandura.

Story Example:

In Bandura’s famous “Bobo Doll” experiment, children who watched an adult act

aggressively toward a doll later imitated the same behavior, even without any reward or

punishment.

Key Concept:

We learn by observing the actions of others and their outcomes.

Use in Real Life:

• Children mimic parents’ behavior.

• Students adopt study habits by watching successful classmates.

4. Cognitive Learning (Learning through Understanding and Thinking)

• This type of learning emphasizes internal mental processes like thinking, memory,

problem-solving, and decision-making.

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• Story Example:

You’re solving a complex math problem. Instead of trial-and-error, you pause, recall

the formula, apply logic, and then solve it.

• Key Concept:

Learning happens by processing and organizing information mentally.

Use in Real Life:

• Learning to write an essay by structuring thoughts.

• Understanding historical events by connecting timelines and causes.

5. Insight Learning (Aha! Moment)

This type was studied by Wolfgang Köhler, a Gestalt psychologist.

• Story Example:

A chimpanzee named Sultan was trying to reach bananas hanging from the ceiling.

After trying and failing multiple times, he suddenly joined two sticks to make a

longer one and reached the banana. He had a sudden realization — an “Aha!”

moment.

Key Concept:

Insight learning is a sudden understanding of how to solve a problem without trial and error.

Use in Real Life:

• Discovering a new way to fix a broken gadget.

• Coming up with a unique idea while brainstorming.

6. Latent Learning (Hidden Learning)

This learning occurs without any immediate reward or demonstration and becomes visible

later when needed.

• Story Example:

A rat is allowed to explore a maze without any reward. Later, when food is placed at

the end, it quickly finds the route — because it had already learned the layout

earlier.

Key Concept:

Learning that stays hidden until there is motivation to show it.

Use in Real Life:

• A student may learn rules by watching sports and apply them during a game.

• We might know how to escape a fire because we once watched a safety video.

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7. Experiential Learning (Learning by Doing)

Introduced by David Kolb, this theory suggests learning is most effective through direct

experience.

Steps Involved:

• Concrete experience (doing)

• Reflective observation (thinking)

• Abstract conceptualization (learning the theory)

• Active experimentation (applying the learning)

Use in Real Life:

• Internship or practical lab work.

• Learning to ride a bicycle — theory alone can’t help!

Conclusion: Why Understanding Types of Learning Matters

• Knowing the types of learning helps teachers, parents, psychologists, and students

themselves:

• Educators can plan effective teaching strategies.

• Parents can understand their child's behavior better.

• Students can adopt the best learning methods for themselves.

Employers can design better training programs.

In reality, we all use a combination of these learning types every day — knowingly or

unknowingly. You might observe (observational), think deeply (cognitive), get rewarded

(operant), or suddenly realize something (insight). Understanding them gives us a deeper

insight into how we grow, adapt, and succeed in life.

Summary Table: Types of Learning at a Glance

Type

Key Idea

Main Psychologist

Real-Life Example

Classical

Conditioning

Learning by association

Ivan Pavlov

Bell = Food → Dog

salivates

Operant

Conditioning

Learning by

consequences

B.F. Skinner

Rewards encourage

behavior

Observational

Learning

Learning by watching

others

Albert Bandura

Children imitating

elders

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Type

Key Idea

Main Psychologist

Real-Life Example

Cognitive

Learning

Learning through

thinking

Jean Piaget (also

Bandura)

Solving puzzles logically

Insight Learning

Sudden understanding

(Aha moment)

Wolfgang Köhler

Using tools suddenly to

reach a goal

Latent Learning

Learning not immediately

visible

Edward Tolman

Exploring first, using

knowledge later

Experiential

Learning

Learning by doing and

reflecting

David Kolb

Practical labs and

internships

6. What is conditioning? Explain Pavlov's theory of conditioning.

Ans: Part I: What is Conditioning?

At its core, conditioning refers to the process of learning through association. It is how living

beings—humans and animals alike—connect one event or stimulus with another. For

example:

• If a student feels anxious every time they hear the word “exam,” they have

associated exams with stress.

• If your phone makes a notification sound and you instantly check it, you’ve been

conditioned to associate that sound with something important.

There are two main types of conditioning in psychology:

1. Classical Conditioning (also called Respondent Conditioning)

2. Operant Conditioning (also called Instrumental Conditioning)

In this discussion, we focus on Classical Conditioning, famously demonstrated by Ivan

Pavlov.

Part II: The Man Behind the Theory – Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936) was not originally a psychologist. He was a physiologist who won

the Nobel Prize in 1904 for his work on the digestive system. His discovery of conditioning

happened accidentally during his experiments on the salivary glands of dogs.

He noticed that the dogs in his laboratory began to salivate not only when food was

presented but even before—when they saw the lab assistant or heard the sound of the

footsteps bringing the food. This intrigued him deeply. Why were the dogs salivating

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without any food in sight? This observation sparked a series of experiments that led to the

development of the Classical Conditioning Theory.

Part III: Pavlov's Classical Conditioning – The Dog Experiment

Let’s now understand the experiment step-by-step like a story:

Step 1: The Natural Reflex (Before Conditioning)

Pavlov took a dog and studied its natural salivation response. He presented food to the dog,

and the dog naturally began to salivate. This was an automatic and unlearned response.

Here’s the psychological terminology:

• Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): The food (because it naturally causes salivation)

• Unconditioned Response (UCR): Salivation (because it’s a natural response to food)

Then, Pavlov introduced a neutral stimulus, such as the sound of a bell. When the bell rang

alone, the dog did not salivate. The bell had no meaning to the dog—yet.

• Neutral Stimulus (NS): Bell (initially has no response)

Step 2: The Conditioning Phase (During Conditioning)

Now comes the interesting part. Pavlov started pairing the bell with the food. Every time he

rang the bell, he immediately presented the food.

Bell → Food → Salivation

This pairing was repeated several times. The dog began to anticipate food when it heard the

bell.

Step 3: The Learned Association (After Conditioning)

After several pairings, something amazing happened. The dog started salivating just at the

sound of the bell, even when no food was presented!

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Bell (now has meaning and causes a response)

• Conditioned Response (CR): Salivation to the bell

So, what was once a neutral sound became a conditioned stimulus, and the response

(salivation) became a conditioned response.

Part IV: The Four Key Elements of Classical Conditioning

1. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a

response (e.g., food)

2. Unconditioned Response (UCR): The unlearned, natural response to the UCS (e.g.,

salivation)

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3. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association,

triggers a response (e.g., bell)

4. Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus

(e.g., salivation to the bell)

Part V: Important Concepts Related to Pavlov’s Conditioning

To truly grasp classical conditioning, let’s explore a few additional terms:

1. Acquisition

This is the initial stage of learning when the neutral stimulus is paired with the

unconditioned stimulus. Learning occurs during this phase.

2. Extinction

If the bell (CS) is repeatedly presented without the food (UCS), the dog will eventually stop

salivating. This fading away of the response is called extinction.

3. Spontaneous Recovery

After extinction, if the bell is presented again after some time, the dog may briefly salivate

again. This is called spontaneous recovery.

4. Generalization

The dog may respond to sounds similar to the bell, such as a chime or tone. This is stimulus

generalization.

5. Discrimination

Over time, the dog can learn to distinguish between different sounds, responding only to

the specific bell and not to other noises.

Part VI: Real-Life Applications of Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s theory is not just limited to dogs. It has been widely applied in human behavior and

therapy:

• Phobias: Many fears (like fear of snakes, heights, or dogs) develop through classical

conditioning.

• Advertising: Marketers pair products (neutral stimulus) with pleasant music or

attractive people (unconditioned stimulus) to create positive feelings toward the

product.

• Education: Teachers use praise and rewards to condition students to participate

actively in class.

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Treatment of Addiction and Anxiety: Classical conditioning principles are used in behavioral

therapy to remove bad habits or treat trauma.

Part VII: Criticism and Limitations of Pavlov’s Theory

While Pavlov's work was foundational, it had some limitations:

• It focused on observable behavior only, ignoring thoughts and emotions.

• It treated learning as mechanical and didn’t account for cognitive processes (like

beliefs, motivations, and decision-making).

• Classical conditioning works best with involuntary, reflexive responses and not

complex behaviors.

Despite these, it laid the groundwork for behaviorism and inspired later psychologists like

John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner.

Conclusion: Learning Through Association

Pavlov’s theory of conditioning is more than a tale of dogs and bells—it is a window into

how all living beings learn. By showing how simple associations can shape behavior, Pavlov

gave psychology a scientific foundation. From classrooms to clinics, and from animals to

humans, classical conditioning continues to explain how experiences mold behavior in

powerful and often surprising ways.

For university students, this theory is not just an academic concept, but a reminder that our

minds are constantly learning—sometimes without us even knowing it.

SECTION-D

7. Write notes on Parametric and Non-parametric Statistics.

Ans: 󷇴󷇵󷇶󷇷󷇸󷇹 What is Parametric Statistics?

Imagine you are baking a cake. You have a specific recipe: 2 cups of flour, 1 cup of sugar, 2

eggs, etc. This recipe has precise values and measurements. Parametric statistics is a lot like

that — it works with specific assumptions and known parameters.

Parametric statistics are based on certain assumptions about the underlying population

from which the sample is taken. The most common assumption is that the data follows a

normal distribution (also called a bell curve). These statistics estimate population

parameters (like the mean or standard deviation) and use them for analysis.

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󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷 Key Characteristics of Parametric Statistics:

• Assumes a distribution: Most often assumes data is normally distributed.

• Works with population parameters: Like mean (average), standard deviation, etc.

• Uses continuous data: Works best when the data is interval or ratio scale (not just

categories).

• Sensitive to outliers: Extreme values can significantly affect results.

• High power: If assumptions are met, parametric tests are very powerful and precise.

󹳨󹳤󹳩󹳪󹳫 Examples of Parametric Tests:

Test Name

Purpose

t-test

Compares the means of two groups

ANOVA (Analysis of

Variance)

Compares the means of more than two groups

Pearson correlation

Measures the strength of relationship between two continuous

variables

Linear regression

Examines the effect of one or more independent variables on a

dependent variable

󷃆󼽢 When to Use Parametric Tests?

Use parametric statistics when the following conditions are met:

• The data is continuous and approximately normally distributed.

• Sample size is large enough.

• Variances of the populations being compared are equal (homogeneity of variance).

• The measurement scale is interval (e.g., temperature) or ratio (e.g., height, weight).

󷕘󷕙󷕚 Example in Real Life:

Suppose you are a college professor who wants to test whether your new teaching method

improves student performance. You give the same test to two groups — one taught by the

old method, and one by the new method. Since test scores are continuous and likely follow

a normal distribution, you might use a t-test — a parametric test — to compare the means

of the two groups.

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󷆊󷆋󷆌󷆍󷆎󷆏 What is Non-Parametric Statistics?

Now imagine you’re cooking without a recipe — you go by taste, smell, and touch. There’s

no fixed rule. That’s how Non-parametric statistics work.

Non-parametric statistics do not rely on assumptions about the population’s distribution.

These methods are often called “distribution-free” because they make no assumptions

about whether data follows a normal distribution or not.

󹳴󹳵󹳶󹳷 Key Characteristics of Non-Parametric Statistics:

1. No assumption about data distribution: Works well even with non-normal data.

2. Uses ordinal or nominal data: Can be used with ranks or categories.

3. Robust to outliers: Less sensitive to extreme values.

4. Lower statistical power: Less powerful than parametric tests when assumptions of

parametric tests are satisfied.

5. Useful with small samples: Ideal when sample size is small or data does not meet

assumptions.

󹳨󹳤󹳩󹳪󹳫 Examples of Non-Parametric Tests:

Test Name

Purpose

Mann-Whitney U test

Compares two independent groups (similar to t-test)

Wilcoxon Signed-Rank Test

Compares two related groups

Kruskal-Wallis Test

Compares more than two independent groups (similar to

ANOVA)

Spearman’s Rank

Correlation

Measures relationship between two variables

Chi-square test

Tests for association between categorical variables

󷃆󼽢 When to Use Non-Parametric Tests?

Use non-parametric statistics when:

• The data is not normally distributed.

• The data is on an ordinal or nominal scale (ranks or categories).

• Sample size is small.

• You have skewed data or outliers.

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• You cannot assume equal variances.

󷕘󷕙󷕚 Example in Real Life:

Let’s say you want to study whether customer satisfaction (rated as “poor”, “average”,

“good”, “excellent”) is related to the type of service provided (online or offline). Since the

satisfaction ratings are ordinal (ranked categories), and not interval data, you cannot use a

parametric test. In this case, a Chi-square test, a non-parametric test, would be appropriate.

󹸯󹸭󹸮 Comparison Between Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics:

Feature

Parametric

Non-Parametric

Assumption

Assumes normal distribution and

homogeneity of variance

No assumptions about

distribution

Data Type

Interval or ratio scale

Ordinal or nominal scale

Efficiency

More powerful when assumptions are met

Less powerful but safer

Robustness

Sensitive to outliers and skewed data

Robust and tolerant to outliers

Sample Size

Requires larger sample

Works well with small samples

Examples

t-test, ANOVA, Pearson’s r

Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon,

Chi-square

󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤 Parametric vs. Non-Parametric: An Analogy

Think of Parametric tests like using a GPS system — it’s accurate, fast, and works

wonderfully if the map is up-to-date and correct. But if you’re in an unfamiliar place without

a signal, the GPS is useless.

On the other hand, Non-parametric tests are like asking locals for directions. It might be

slower and less precise, but it works when the GPS doesn’t — especially when the road is

rough (data isn’t normal), or you don’t know the area well (small sample, ordinal data).

󷉃󷉄 Conclusion: Which One Should You Use?

Both Parametric and Non-parametric statistics are valuable tools in a researcher’s toolbox.

Your choice depends on the nature of your data:

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• If your data meets all the necessary assumptions, parametric tests are preferable

because of their greater power and precision.

• If your data violates these assumptions, it’s better to use non-parametric tests,

which are more flexible and safer.

• In a real-world research environment, it’s not unusual to use both types depending

on the situation. A good statistician or researcher is one who knows when and how

to use the right tool for the job.

󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 Final Words to Students:

As a university student, try to understand the nature of your data first. Don’t rush into

applying fancy tests. Remember, the goal of statistics is not just calculation, but

understanding and interpretation. Once you know whether your data is normal, skewed,

continuous, ordinal, or categorical — you can confidently choose between parametric and

non-parametric methods.

8. Calculate Mean of the following data:

C.I

85-89

80-84

75-79

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54

N=25

Ans: Calculating the Mean of Grouped Data – A Step-by-Step Story for University Students

Imagine you're sitting in your classroom, and your professor walks in and writes this table on the

board:

Class Interval (C.I)

Frequency (f)

85 - 89

80 - 84

Easy2Siksha

Class Interval (C.I)

Frequency (f)

75 - 79

70 - 74

65 - 69

60 - 64

55 - 59

50 - 54

Total (N)

Your professor asks you, “Can you calculate the mean of this data?”

You might think, “Well, I don’t even know where to begin!”

Let me walk you through this in a very simple and friendly way, like we’re learning together.

󼨐󼨑󼨒 What is the Mean?

• Before jumping into calculations, let’s understand what the mean actually means.

• In everyday language, the mean is what we usually call the average.

• If you have test marks of 5 subjects, you add them up and divide by 5 to get your average

marks.

• But what if you have data in groups or intervals like the one above?

• We don’t have the individual data values — instead, we know how many students

(frequency) fall into each group (class interval). That’s where grouped data comes in.

So, how do we find the average (mean) in such cases?

Let’s explore this step by step. 󽄻󽄼󽄽

󼩕󼩖󼩗󼩘󼩙󼩚 Step-by-Step Method to Find the Mean of Grouped Data

We will use the "assumed mean method" (also called the shortcut method), which is often easier

and faster. But don't worry, we’ll explain why and how it works.

󷃆󼽢 Step 1: Understand the Table

Here is your raw data again:

Class Interval

Frequency (f)

85 - 89

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Class Interval

Frequency (f)

80 - 84

75 - 79

70 - 74

65 - 69

60 - 64

55 - 59

50 - 54

Total

• These are class intervals – ranges where data lies.

• Frequency (f) tells how many values lie in each class.

• The total number of observations is N = 25.

Now, let’s build a working table for calculation.

󷃆󼽢 Step 2: Find Class Marks (Midpoints)

Since we don’t know exact values, we take the midpoint (class mark) of each interval. The formula

is:

Let’s do it:

C.I

Midpoint (x)

85 - 89

(85+89)/2 = 87

80 - 84

75 - 79

70 - 74

65 - 69

60 - 64

55 - 59

Easy2Siksha

C.I

Midpoint (x)

50 - 54

Now, we use this to calculate the mean.

󷃆󼽢 Step 3: Choose an Assumed Mean (A)

To simplify calculations, we choose any midpoint as the assumed mean (A).

A smart choice is to take the midpoint from the middle class. Let’s choose:

A=67(from the class 65−69)

󷃆󼽢 Step 4: Find Deviation (d = x - A)

Now subtract the assumed mean from each midpoint:

x (Midpoint)

d = x - A

-5

-10

-15

󷃆󼽢 Step 5: Multiply f and d to find f*d

f*d

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f*d

-5

-15

-10

-20

-15

Now, add the f*d column:

󷃆󼽢 Step 6: Use the Formula to Find Mean

The formula using assumed mean method is:

We already have:

• A = 67

• ∑f = 25

• ∑f·d = 65

So,

󷃆󼽢 Final Answer:

The mean of the given grouped data is:

69.6

󹴡󹴵󹴣󹴤 Why Use Assumed Mean Method?

Let’s take a moment to understand why we use this method:

• Reduces calculation: Instead of multiplying large numbers, we work with smaller deviations.

• Time-saving: Especially helpful during exams or large data.

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• Logical: We're just shifting the origin to make math easier — the final result adjusts

accordingly.

󽄻󽄼󽄽 Real-Life Analogy: Understanding Grouped Mean

Imagine you are a teacher, and you give a test. But students report their marks in ranges:

• “I scored between 60 and 64”, says one.

• Another says, “I was between 85 and 89.”

You don’t know exact marks, but you want to find the average.

So, you assume everyone in each group scored the middle value — and use that to compute the

average.

That’s what we did here!

󼪺󼪻 Additional Tips for University Students

1. Write clear steps: Always make your table clean and organized.

2. Mention the method used: “By assumed mean method…” at the start of your answer.

3. Label final answer clearly.

4. Double-check totals (like ∑f and ∑f·d) — a small error can lead to wrong answers.

5. Practice with different class intervals — equal and unequal — to master it.

󹴷󹴺󹴸󹴹󹴻󹴼󹴽󹴾󹴿󹵀󹵁󹵂 Summary of Concepts Covered:

• Grouped Data: Data presented in intervals, not individual values.

• Frequency (f): Number of values in each group.

• Midpoint (x): Average value of each class interval.

• Assumed Mean (A): A midpoint chosen to simplify calculation.

• Deviation (d = x - A): Difference between each midpoint and A.

• f*d: Multiply frequency with deviation.

• Mean Formula:

Easy2Siksha

󽄡󽄢󽄣󽄤󽄥󽄦 In conclusion:

Calculating the mean of grouped data is not difficult once you understand the process. It’s like

solving a puzzle — step by step. The assumed mean method is your shortcut through that puzzle.

With practice, you’ll be able to find the average in any grouped frequency distribution, just like we

did with the final result of 69.6.

“This paper has been carefully prepared for educational purposes. If you notice any mistakes or

have suggestions, feel free to share your feedback.”